Introduction
The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam possesses in its department of Dutch _History the most important collection of Dutch East India Company relics in the country. This collection illustrates particularly the official aspect of company history. Increasingly the lack of objects, illustrating the material aspects of trade and navigation, came to be felt. When, in the sixties of this century, shipwrecks of the Dutch East India Company became the target for underwater salvage and archaeology, the Rijksmuseurn immediately showed interest in this new field. By necessity this interest was shown at first by acquisition of artifacts from shipwrecks at auction, later by direct contact with divers and investigators, whereby the museum sought to influence direction and aim of their projects, so as to promote the scientific aspects of these investigations. Finally, in 1979 a situation arose, where direct participation by the museum in an underwater archaeological project seemed desirable. In this development the direct interests of the museum played a role as far as the forming of collection and the extension of knowledge was involved, but the importance of properly managing an important archaeological site and the protection of the national heritage were also pertinent factors. Summing up, in 1979 there was no other institute ready to enter the field.
The Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam possesses in its department of Dutch _History the most important collection of Dutch East India Company relics in the country. This collection illustrates particularly the official aspect of company history. Increasingly the lack of objects, illustrating the material aspects of trade and navigation, came to be felt. When, in the sixties of this century, shipwrecks of the Dutch East India Company became the target for underwater salvage and archaeology, the Rijksmuseurn immediately showed interest in this new field. By necessity this interest was shown at first by acquisition of artifacts from shipwrecks at auction, later by direct contact with divers and investigators, whereby the museum sought to influence direction and aim of their projects, so as to promote the scientific aspects of these investigations. Finally, in 1979 a situation arose, where direct participation by the museum in an underwater archaeological project seemed desirable. In this development the direct interests of the museum played a role as far as the forming of collection and the extension of knowledge was involved, but the importance of properly managing an important archaeological site and the protection of the national heritage were also pertinent factors. Summing up, in 1979 there was no other institute ready to enter the field.
TVliegent Hart
Investigation of the wrecksite of a Dutch
East Indianian in the Scheldt Estuary
The VliegendHart project is an Anglo Dutch underwater archaeological and historical investigation of the remains of the East Indianan TVliegend Hart, wrecked, a few hours after its departure from Vlissingen roads, on the North Sea outside the Scheldt river, The project originates from archival discoveries made by Professor Dr G Schilder who, in collaboration with the Amsterdam Rijksmuseum, started the investigation on site. Assistance was sought for the search and investigation at sea when it transpired that the wreck was situated in an area set apart for dredging,
As no adequate facilities could be mobilized at that point in time in Holland, contact was taken with Rex Cowan, a well-known investigator of Dutch East India Company wrecks, with Anthony Lansdale, a proton magnetometer specialist, and with John Rose, diver and entrepreneur; they proved to be able and willing to cooperate with the Dutch initiators for the planning, organising, financing and execution of a search and investigation project which might extend over many years. The costs were to be carried in first instance by the English participants, united in the North Sea Archaeological Group; on the other side by contributions in the form of assistance and facilities granted by museums, institutes, firms and private persons. In 1983 the province of Zeeland granted a subsidy in the costs of operating a conservation workshop in Flushing.
Finally, it is the intention to make available to Dutch museums find material which is no longer of importance for the research project, at nominal cost or in exchange for facilities and services rendered. Certain kinds of materials which are found in great numbers will be sold after having been offered for sale to museums and institutions.
Research and organisation
From the discovery by professor Sehilder in 1977 of the records of the shipwreck of TVliegend Hart to the discovery of the wreck itself, four years elapsed. In this period a cooperation of divers, researchers, entrepreneurs and interested private individuals came into being, thus providing the framework for an organisation to detect, research, salvage, register and conserve the remains of the historic shipwreck in a satisfactory way. The backbone of the organisation was provided by the North Sea Archaeological Group, under the leadership of Rex Cowan and John Rose. Their contributions consisted of the necessary vessels for research and salvage, detection apparatus, equipped divers, and the financial means with which to make all this function for prolonged periods of time,
Another important contribution was provided by professor Schilder, consisting of the necessary historical information to make the investigation at sea possible. The historical information was analysed in cooperation with Albert Veld¬kamp, pilot at Flushing_
The organisation of the archaeological work, the site and finds registration and of the conservation was provided by the Rijksmuseum and coordinated by Jerzy Gawronski.
An investigation of shipwrecks of the Dutch East India Company, as envisaged here, involves various disciplines in the fields of archaeology, history and science, Historical source material will form the basis for archaeological research; archaeology will produce questions to be answered by historians and scientists. The ultimate aim of the project is the enlargement of knowledge about material aspects of Dutch East India Company navigation and trade.
The city of Flushing helped with accommodation for the British divers, facilities in the Municipal Museum and various practical services. Messrs. Stegink, builders in Flushing, provided without cost a large workshop and depot for the conservation laboratory. AKZO Chemical Industries helped with the equipment of the laboratory and provided various necessary chemicals. A close liaison was kept with the Customs and Excise at Flushing, for arranging the formalities around the bringing ashore of the finds.
The Ministry of Finance showed a keen interest in the project, as owner of the shipwreck and successor in the rights of the East India Company. The province of Zeeland kept contact with the project through its provincial archaeologist, it will be clear to everyone that a large and complex research project such as the investigation of a 18th century shipwreck entails contacts with experts in the most diverse fields. The value of these contacts and of the contributions of the experts will only be fully visible in the final phases of the project, but they are of incalculable importance for the progress of the work.
In September 1981 Anthony Lonsdale succeeded in locating the wreck of TVliegend Hart definitively with the aid of a proton magnetometer. Divers found a conglomerate of fishnets, cannon and lead ingots. A number of objects, brought to the surface, made a tentative identification of the wreck possible.
As no adequate facilities could be mobilized at that point in time in Holland, contact was taken with Rex Cowan, a well-known investigator of Dutch East India Company wrecks, with Anthony Lansdale, a proton magnetometer specialist, and with John Rose, diver and entrepreneur; they proved to be able and willing to cooperate with the Dutch initiators for the planning, organising, financing and execution of a search and investigation project which might extend over many years. The costs were to be carried in first instance by the English participants, united in the North Sea Archaeological Group; on the other side by contributions in the form of assistance and facilities granted by museums, institutes, firms and private persons. In 1983 the province of Zeeland granted a subsidy in the costs of operating a conservation workshop in Flushing.
Finally, it is the intention to make available to Dutch museums find material which is no longer of importance for the research project, at nominal cost or in exchange for facilities and services rendered. Certain kinds of materials which are found in great numbers will be sold after having been offered for sale to museums and institutions.
Research and organisation
From the discovery by professor Sehilder in 1977 of the records of the shipwreck of TVliegend Hart to the discovery of the wreck itself, four years elapsed. In this period a cooperation of divers, researchers, entrepreneurs and interested private individuals came into being, thus providing the framework for an organisation to detect, research, salvage, register and conserve the remains of the historic shipwreck in a satisfactory way. The backbone of the organisation was provided by the North Sea Archaeological Group, under the leadership of Rex Cowan and John Rose. Their contributions consisted of the necessary vessels for research and salvage, detection apparatus, equipped divers, and the financial means with which to make all this function for prolonged periods of time,
Another important contribution was provided by professor Schilder, consisting of the necessary historical information to make the investigation at sea possible. The historical information was analysed in cooperation with Albert Veld¬kamp, pilot at Flushing_
The organisation of the archaeological work, the site and finds registration and of the conservation was provided by the Rijksmuseum and coordinated by Jerzy Gawronski.
An investigation of shipwrecks of the Dutch East India Company, as envisaged here, involves various disciplines in the fields of archaeology, history and science, Historical source material will form the basis for archaeological research; archaeology will produce questions to be answered by historians and scientists. The ultimate aim of the project is the enlargement of knowledge about material aspects of Dutch East India Company navigation and trade.
The city of Flushing helped with accommodation for the British divers, facilities in the Municipal Museum and various practical services. Messrs. Stegink, builders in Flushing, provided without cost a large workshop and depot for the conservation laboratory. AKZO Chemical Industries helped with the equipment of the laboratory and provided various necessary chemicals. A close liaison was kept with the Customs and Excise at Flushing, for arranging the formalities around the bringing ashore of the finds.
The Ministry of Finance showed a keen interest in the project, as owner of the shipwreck and successor in the rights of the East India Company. The province of Zeeland kept contact with the project through its provincial archaeologist, it will be clear to everyone that a large and complex research project such as the investigation of a 18th century shipwreck entails contacts with experts in the most diverse fields. The value of these contacts and of the contributions of the experts will only be fully visible in the final phases of the project, but they are of incalculable importance for the progress of the work.
In September 1981 Anthony Lonsdale succeeded in locating the wreck of TVliegend Hart definitively with the aid of a proton magnetometer. Divers found a conglomerate of fishnets, cannon and lead ingots. A number of objects, brought to the surface, made a tentative identification of the wreck possible.
Fig. 2 Duik trap
Historical background
On February 3, 1735, at c. 14.00 h. the East India Company vessels TVliegend Hart and the Anna Catharina left the roads of Rammekens near Flushing, destination Batavia. In the van was the pilot vessel Mercurius, under orders to accompany the ships through the North Sea and the Channel up to the Isle of Wight. A very thorough analysis of the available sources by prof, Schilder of the University of Utrecht provides the answers to the question what exactly happened on that fateful afternoon of February 3, 1735. The two East Indiamen, sailing on a Westerly course with strong North Easterly winds during springtide, struck the bottom in the shallowest part of the Deurloo, a narrow channel between sandbanks. The Anna Catharina sank two hours later, at 19,00 hrs.
TVliegend Hart stayed afloat until 11,00 h when she anchored in the shoals of the Schoneveld but sank at 11.15 h., in water 10 fathoms deep. The captain of the pilot vessel Mercurius was an eyewitness to these events. Rescue turned out to be impossible; all hands went down with both ships, 431 in total.
The historical records also give an answer to the question of the position of the shipwrecks. The directors of the Zeeland chamber of the East India Company ordered their cartographer Abraham Anias to draw a chart showing the exact position of the shipwrecks in relation to certain landmarks and the buoys in the Deurloo channel. This chart, combined with a variety of additional information, allowed prof_ Schilder, in collaboration with the pilot Albert Veldkarnp, to pinpoint the probable position of the shipwrecks on a modern chart.
The 1982 campaign
The goal of the 1982 season was to collect evidence which might allow a definitive identification of the shipwreck and to throw light upon the extent and build-up of the wreck site. This approach entails the registration of the remains of the ship and its contents in situ and then the recovery of artifacts, the processing of the finds involves the conservation of deteriorated materials and the registration of finds and their treatment,
The final result is seen as a catalogue containing the excavation records, distribution of objects over the site, object properties, material composition, function etc. This compound information influences the progress of the project by solving old problems and providing new ones and assimilates the material for presentation in a museum. Some important topographical aspects of the. wreck site must be dealt with, before the progress of the work itself and variable influences on the work can be described.
The Site
The distance of the wreck site from Flushing is a very important factor in the operation. The journey to and from the wreck site takes 5 hours each day. Staying overnight at the wreck site is impossible, because of the lack of accommodation on the ship and the dangers caused by the busy traffic in the Scheldt estuary. The tidal system has been of great influence on the work, diving is only possible at low tide slack. In consequence the working periods were quite restricted. Because of the complicated nature of the local tidal system, planning of the work remained problematical throughout the season.
A third complication arose from the composition of the sea bottom at the wreck site, combined with the extensive pollution of the water in this area. As a consequence, visibility remained near to zero throughout the working season, this condition was aggravated by an explosive growth of microorganisms during this summer.
A final problem was created by the accumulation of nets and cables over the wreck site. Half buried, but sometimes floating, the nets combined with bad visibility posed a constant threat to the divers' safety. The principal and main factor influencing the progress of the operation however proved to be the weather.
On February 3, 1735, at c. 14.00 h. the East India Company vessels TVliegend Hart and the Anna Catharina left the roads of Rammekens near Flushing, destination Batavia. In the van was the pilot vessel Mercurius, under orders to accompany the ships through the North Sea and the Channel up to the Isle of Wight. A very thorough analysis of the available sources by prof, Schilder of the University of Utrecht provides the answers to the question what exactly happened on that fateful afternoon of February 3, 1735. The two East Indiamen, sailing on a Westerly course with strong North Easterly winds during springtide, struck the bottom in the shallowest part of the Deurloo, a narrow channel between sandbanks. The Anna Catharina sank two hours later, at 19,00 hrs.
TVliegend Hart stayed afloat until 11,00 h when she anchored in the shoals of the Schoneveld but sank at 11.15 h., in water 10 fathoms deep. The captain of the pilot vessel Mercurius was an eyewitness to these events. Rescue turned out to be impossible; all hands went down with both ships, 431 in total.
The historical records also give an answer to the question of the position of the shipwrecks. The directors of the Zeeland chamber of the East India Company ordered their cartographer Abraham Anias to draw a chart showing the exact position of the shipwrecks in relation to certain landmarks and the buoys in the Deurloo channel. This chart, combined with a variety of additional information, allowed prof_ Schilder, in collaboration with the pilot Albert Veldkarnp, to pinpoint the probable position of the shipwrecks on a modern chart.
The 1982 campaign
The goal of the 1982 season was to collect evidence which might allow a definitive identification of the shipwreck and to throw light upon the extent and build-up of the wreck site. This approach entails the registration of the remains of the ship and its contents in situ and then the recovery of artifacts, the processing of the finds involves the conservation of deteriorated materials and the registration of finds and their treatment,
The final result is seen as a catalogue containing the excavation records, distribution of objects over the site, object properties, material composition, function etc. This compound information influences the progress of the project by solving old problems and providing new ones and assimilates the material for presentation in a museum. Some important topographical aspects of the. wreck site must be dealt with, before the progress of the work itself and variable influences on the work can be described.
The Site
The distance of the wreck site from Flushing is a very important factor in the operation. The journey to and from the wreck site takes 5 hours each day. Staying overnight at the wreck site is impossible, because of the lack of accommodation on the ship and the dangers caused by the busy traffic in the Scheldt estuary. The tidal system has been of great influence on the work, diving is only possible at low tide slack. In consequence the working periods were quite restricted. Because of the complicated nature of the local tidal system, planning of the work remained problematical throughout the season.
A third complication arose from the composition of the sea bottom at the wreck site, combined with the extensive pollution of the water in this area. As a consequence, visibility remained near to zero throughout the working season, this condition was aggravated by an explosive growth of microorganisms during this summer.
A final problem was created by the accumulation of nets and cables over the wreck site. Half buried, but sometimes floating, the nets combined with bad visibility posed a constant threat to the divers' safety. The principal and main factor influencing the progress of the operation however proved to be the weather.
Fig. 3 Musket-fragment: sideplate bears the inscription Varner Zeeland'
Chronological review
The season lasted from 4/7 till 24/9. Out of 82 days 44 have been wasted mainly because of wind, which blew prevailingly from a South-Western direction and mounted to an average force 7 (12/7, 14-16/7, 19-22/7, 26-29/7, 4/8, 12-27/8, 30/8-1/9, 5-8/9, 21-24/9). Under these circumstances diving is impossible, in view of the risks divers run, getting off and especially on board the vessel. Besides, it has appeared useless to dive after a period of wind and rough seas, as the water is very troubled and the visibility under water is nil. Apart from wind, on some occasions also fog made it impossible to reach the site (12/9, 14/9, 16-18/9). Moreover, 8 days were lost because of technical problems in the engines (5/7, 10-11/7, 17/?, 25/7) or the navigational equipment (16-18/9). The former defects stopped after the arrival of the Flying Hart, the newly built vessel, which would replace the older Desert Star. In all, in this season there were 30 days on which work on site, both under and above water, could be carried out (5-9/7, 13/7, 18/7, 5-10 /8, 28-29/8, 24/9, 9-11/9, 13/9, 15/9, 19-20/9) (see appendix I). The long period of strong wind (12-27/8) during a stretch of 16 days interrupted the continuity of the operations on site; on this ground the season can be split up into a first phase (5/7-12/8) and a second phase (28/8-24/9).The schedule of an average, ideal working-day was as follows, As far as the tide permitted, one sailed out in the morning and work on site was carried out. The actual diving operation was preceded by a briefing and finished with a debriefing. These served firstly to provide the divers with diving-technical information and archaeological instructions and secondly as an evaluation of the work performed and a discussion of the results.
One pair of divers dived at a time, while the following pair stood by on the forward deck, fully kitted up: apart from this stand-by team someone on the roof of the cabin acted as a lookout. Moreover, one other person was charged with keeping the diving logbook and somebody else was ready to assist the divers with their gear and to take up their find-bags. These were immediately collected in a basin filled with seawater.
During the home voyage, findmaterial was already separated, according to material and provenance, provided with a find-number and packed with regard to the conservation-requirements. On arrival in Flushing the find-processing was continued: finds were transported to the conservation-laboratory, where the finds-treatment could be started. These activities took all available time. Further the same day, registration and reports had to be finished off. A day-report was made up, in which as well as a chronological diving-scheme, the performed tasks and observations on site were mentioned, measurements were worked out and the functioning of the organisation was discussed. Find-lists were prepared in triplicate, intended for internal reporting and for the Customs in Flushing.
Apart from these proceedings a working day brought several more duties, like the preparation of a museum presentation and the keeping of contacts with the media.
Activities and results
The different activities which took place during this season can be subdivided into four categories:
Localisation
The excavation of a wreck without a fixed surface-marker means in the first place that the site had to be traced again. The search was performed by means of a proton magnetometer. After a survey of 2 days (6-7/7) in the delimited area clear signals were received, pointing to the presence of iron. A grapnel got hold of the bottom and a diving inspection proved we had found the bronze cannon with the lettering VOC E. This cannon (the so-called E-cannon) had also served as a first and central point during the localisation and site-survey in 1981.
The further reconnaissance of the site could now get started but was, before it had advanced properly, interrupted when on 23/7 the marker-buoy appeared to be gone. Finally, on 5/8, after a second magnetometer- and grapnel-survey, this time of seven days (23-24/7, 26/7, 2-5/8), the wreck could be relocated, again through the bronze E-cannon. It found itself in yet a different position and seemed to have been moved. It is still not clear whether the buoy had disappeared as a result of an accident or whether it was done on purpose.
Underwater-survey
At this point the research was aimed to provide a picture of the composition and orientation of the site. For this purpose a side-scan sonar survey could serve as a base. This apparatus produces an image of the seabottom in relief, in which the wreck and its separate parts can be identified, Unfortunately the sonar-sounding, carried out in 1981 by Ri.jkswaterstaat in the wreck-area, was not available any more and a survey by the Navy during this season had not yielded useful results. An overall picture of the site could only be obtained by a visual reconnaissance. Beforehand all kinds of practical matters had to be dealt with, like attaching the buoy-rope, on which the ship was moored and which served as a guiding-line for descent and ascent, solidly to the bottom. Measures had to be taken to increase the safety during diving. The site had to be cleared as much as possible of loose ropes, cables and nets, which only partially succeeded, and swimminglines had to be stretched from the mooring to different locations. In view of the previously described circumstances it is difficult and excessively irresponsible to move freely over the bottom.
Such preparatory tasks took the first four diving days (8-9 (7, 1317, 18/7). The Loss of the buoy interrupted the reconnaissance right in the beginning. The threads could be gathered up again after 18 days. immediately after relocalisation, a thick buoy-rope is attached around a heavy iron cannon (fragment) in the bottom under the E-cannon (C). During the following 4 days several measurements were taken of large features on the bottom, which could be traced notwithstanding the had visibility and mapped on triangulation. The measuring-system is based on two fixed points, from where an object is measured with aid of measuring tapes. These points (large nails) were placed in position on a wooden plank, which was situated flat on the bottom in front of the E-cannon. Afterwards, when this plank appeared to have become loose, new measuring points were attached in the ends of the beams, that stuck out of the bottom right next to it (`ribs')' these points could not be related to the old measuring system anymore because of the unfavourable visibility-conditions.
The second phase consisted of 12 diving-days in the form of isolated clusters of maximally 3 days at a stretch (28-29 /8, 2-4/9, 9-11/9, 13/9, 15/9, 19-20/9). This period was characterized by very bad visibility under water, which made even reconnaissance and measuring over only a short distance extremely difficult. Apart from some incidental observations during the second phase, the overall picture rests as it is available at this moment on measurements from the first phase.
At this point a limited area has been covered and only a rough registration of big, marked wreck-features have been carried out: a more accurate investigation of the bottom was not possible.
The impression exists, that there is a slope in the bottom, which runs from the big corner-piece (E) on the righthand side behind the E-cannon, past the location with the fixed points (A & B), and mounts again in the direction of the vertical cannon (F). The surface beyong the tube (I) is, apart from some isolated objects and heaps of nets, empty and little accidented. Right to the left of the E-cannon (C) there extends a layer of net toward the vertical cannon, while on the right, above the E-cannon, there were irregular series of lead ingots (D). The wooden plank seems originally to have been placed vertically, edgeways against the 'ribs' and probably has been turned over. A second board appears to be present in the ground, still in situ.
The season lasted from 4/7 till 24/9. Out of 82 days 44 have been wasted mainly because of wind, which blew prevailingly from a South-Western direction and mounted to an average force 7 (12/7, 14-16/7, 19-22/7, 26-29/7, 4/8, 12-27/8, 30/8-1/9, 5-8/9, 21-24/9). Under these circumstances diving is impossible, in view of the risks divers run, getting off and especially on board the vessel. Besides, it has appeared useless to dive after a period of wind and rough seas, as the water is very troubled and the visibility under water is nil. Apart from wind, on some occasions also fog made it impossible to reach the site (12/9, 14/9, 16-18/9). Moreover, 8 days were lost because of technical problems in the engines (5/7, 10-11/7, 17/?, 25/7) or the navigational equipment (16-18/9). The former defects stopped after the arrival of the Flying Hart, the newly built vessel, which would replace the older Desert Star. In all, in this season there were 30 days on which work on site, both under and above water, could be carried out (5-9/7, 13/7, 18/7, 5-10 /8, 28-29/8, 24/9, 9-11/9, 13/9, 15/9, 19-20/9) (see appendix I). The long period of strong wind (12-27/8) during a stretch of 16 days interrupted the continuity of the operations on site; on this ground the season can be split up into a first phase (5/7-12/8) and a second phase (28/8-24/9).The schedule of an average, ideal working-day was as follows, As far as the tide permitted, one sailed out in the morning and work on site was carried out. The actual diving operation was preceded by a briefing and finished with a debriefing. These served firstly to provide the divers with diving-technical information and archaeological instructions and secondly as an evaluation of the work performed and a discussion of the results.
One pair of divers dived at a time, while the following pair stood by on the forward deck, fully kitted up: apart from this stand-by team someone on the roof of the cabin acted as a lookout. Moreover, one other person was charged with keeping the diving logbook and somebody else was ready to assist the divers with their gear and to take up their find-bags. These were immediately collected in a basin filled with seawater.
During the home voyage, findmaterial was already separated, according to material and provenance, provided with a find-number and packed with regard to the conservation-requirements. On arrival in Flushing the find-processing was continued: finds were transported to the conservation-laboratory, where the finds-treatment could be started. These activities took all available time. Further the same day, registration and reports had to be finished off. A day-report was made up, in which as well as a chronological diving-scheme, the performed tasks and observations on site were mentioned, measurements were worked out and the functioning of the organisation was discussed. Find-lists were prepared in triplicate, intended for internal reporting and for the Customs in Flushing.
Apart from these proceedings a working day brought several more duties, like the preparation of a museum presentation and the keeping of contacts with the media.
Activities and results
The different activities which took place during this season can be subdivided into four categories:
- localisation
- underwater-survey
- excavation and registration
- conservation.
Localisation
The excavation of a wreck without a fixed surface-marker means in the first place that the site had to be traced again. The search was performed by means of a proton magnetometer. After a survey of 2 days (6-7/7) in the delimited area clear signals were received, pointing to the presence of iron. A grapnel got hold of the bottom and a diving inspection proved we had found the bronze cannon with the lettering VOC E. This cannon (the so-called E-cannon) had also served as a first and central point during the localisation and site-survey in 1981.
The further reconnaissance of the site could now get started but was, before it had advanced properly, interrupted when on 23/7 the marker-buoy appeared to be gone. Finally, on 5/8, after a second magnetometer- and grapnel-survey, this time of seven days (23-24/7, 26/7, 2-5/8), the wreck could be relocated, again through the bronze E-cannon. It found itself in yet a different position and seemed to have been moved. It is still not clear whether the buoy had disappeared as a result of an accident or whether it was done on purpose.
Underwater-survey
At this point the research was aimed to provide a picture of the composition and orientation of the site. For this purpose a side-scan sonar survey could serve as a base. This apparatus produces an image of the seabottom in relief, in which the wreck and its separate parts can be identified, Unfortunately the sonar-sounding, carried out in 1981 by Ri.jkswaterstaat in the wreck-area, was not available any more and a survey by the Navy during this season had not yielded useful results. An overall picture of the site could only be obtained by a visual reconnaissance. Beforehand all kinds of practical matters had to be dealt with, like attaching the buoy-rope, on which the ship was moored and which served as a guiding-line for descent and ascent, solidly to the bottom. Measures had to be taken to increase the safety during diving. The site had to be cleared as much as possible of loose ropes, cables and nets, which only partially succeeded, and swimminglines had to be stretched from the mooring to different locations. In view of the previously described circumstances it is difficult and excessively irresponsible to move freely over the bottom.
Such preparatory tasks took the first four diving days (8-9 (7, 1317, 18/7). The Loss of the buoy interrupted the reconnaissance right in the beginning. The threads could be gathered up again after 18 days. immediately after relocalisation, a thick buoy-rope is attached around a heavy iron cannon (fragment) in the bottom under the E-cannon (C). During the following 4 days several measurements were taken of large features on the bottom, which could be traced notwithstanding the had visibility and mapped on triangulation. The measuring-system is based on two fixed points, from where an object is measured with aid of measuring tapes. These points (large nails) were placed in position on a wooden plank, which was situated flat on the bottom in front of the E-cannon. Afterwards, when this plank appeared to have become loose, new measuring points were attached in the ends of the beams, that stuck out of the bottom right next to it (`ribs')' these points could not be related to the old measuring system anymore because of the unfavourable visibility-conditions.
The second phase consisted of 12 diving-days in the form of isolated clusters of maximally 3 days at a stretch (28-29 /8, 2-4/9, 9-11/9, 13/9, 15/9, 19-20/9). This period was characterized by very bad visibility under water, which made even reconnaissance and measuring over only a short distance extremely difficult. Apart from some incidental observations during the second phase, the overall picture rests as it is available at this moment on measurements from the first phase.
At this point a limited area has been covered and only a rough registration of big, marked wreck-features have been carried out: a more accurate investigation of the bottom was not possible.
The impression exists, that there is a slope in the bottom, which runs from the big corner-piece (E) on the righthand side behind the E-cannon, past the location with the fixed points (A & B), and mounts again in the direction of the vertical cannon (F). The surface beyong the tube (I) is, apart from some isolated objects and heaps of nets, empty and little accidented. Right to the left of the E-cannon (C) there extends a layer of net toward the vertical cannon, while on the right, above the E-cannon, there were irregular series of lead ingots (D). The wooden plank seems originally to have been placed vertically, edgeways against the 'ribs' and probably has been turned over. A second board appears to be present in the ground, still in situ.
The ribs' all have more or less the same diameter and stick in an oblique angle towards the E-cannon out of the muddy soil. The row of `ribs' stands perpendicularly on the slope-direction and seems to stretch itself further to the left under the nets and to the right under the mud. About the nature of the wood-construction we can only speculate at present: the enormous thickness of the planking (12-13 cm) could indicate, that we are dealing with a fragment of the ship's hull.
The elevation could be interpreted as the inner side of the ship, that at one side is delimited by the remains of the hull. Theoretically the wreck must then be orientated in line with the row of 'ribs': possibly the big concretion blocks (1) point in this direction, but concrete indications about the structure of the ship are still lacking. Also an orientation is not established because a compass could hardly be read under water and probably shows deviations, due to the high concentration of metals. During this season it did not come to excessive salvage activities. Knowledge of the orientation and structure of the site, which is indispensable for the planning of a purposeful excavation, is still deficient, Likewise failed the necessary technical facilities, particularly a grid-system, to take the matter up in a justifiable way. Such a paling of metal tubes, which divides the site into square sectors, is useful as a co-ordinate scheme of the measuring system, also as a fixed point of orientation, and further offers the divers support when handling the airlift or other heavy aids. During this season soil exploration took place in a small, limited area. Instead of a systematically handled excavation with an accurate registration of position, the salvage took more the shape of a prospection, collecting find materials at random by hand to a small depth. Forced by visibility-conditions the work was mostly done groping along and the position of the objects in relation to each other could not be recorded. To counterbalance this lack of in situ-registration the provenance of the object was established as accurately as possible during the debriefing, on the basis of experiences and observations of the divers. The first finds were collected during the digging to attach the heavy buoy-rope (6/8). Then during the following diving days, all attention was focused on the area around the board with the fixed points, at first mainly in front, later behind, between the row of 'ribs' and the metal rube (I), an area of c. 2 x 2 rn, In spite of the small scale of the excavation, a reasonably large diversity of material and objects was salvaged (see appendix II). A spectacular find-group is a large number of filled wine-bottles, of which the packing crates may still be present in the soft mud. Beside numerous bottle fragments an undamaged, engraved small beaker of white glass has been found. Also coins were brought up in a fair quantity, gold ducats (c. 160) and a varied collection of heavily corroded, South American silver money (c.1100), In a random sequence can be mentioned successively several wooden objects, like a knife handle, a deadeye, musketbutts, buttons, a little box with a sliding-lid and a number of undetermined remains; moreover copper objects, among which compasses, a horn, a sideplate of a musket, tin objects, like a plate with the inscription 1 A 1 1734, forks and a spoon and several kitchen utensils, and also lead fragments, among other things sheeting, a large number of rolls with rope inside and shot of different caliber. Belonging to the category ironware can be considered shot and a fragment of bar shot, a series of weights with lead heads, inscribed with a mark of weight, the coat of arms of Amsterdam and the letter K. Also organic material was salvaged, among which fragments of silk stockings, rope, cardboard, a pineapple and a leaf, while further can be mentioned mother-of-pearl buttons, human ribs, fragments of porcelain, brick, clay-pipes, coal, sealing-wax and slags. Of both bronze cannon the E-cannon, which was laying completely free on the bottom and was no longer in situ, was salvaged (4/9).
The registration procedure of the find material after salvage is split up into two phases: firstly, findlists are being kept in order of salvage, on which a first material determination, quantities and as accurately as possible the provenance is marked, This form of registration took place immediately at the end of the work ori site. Also the progress of the archaeological and conservatory research is daily recorded in a day-report with notes about the course of things on an organisational level, Also the further processing of the finds is indicated on the findlists. After conservation and study of the finds, a registration on object forms will take place, creating means of later functional and material analysis. This research aims at 3 results. Firstly, it was the intention to provide data which will make further identification of the wreck possible. The cannon with the VOC-monogram and the letter E of the Chamber Enkhuizen confirms the speculation that we are dealing with an East Indiarnan, but causes confusion at the same time, because of the obvious provenance from Enkhuizen. A side plate of a musket with the inscription 'Kamer Zeela(nd)' indicates an East India-man from Zeeland, Dating points are provided by the coins, which all belong to the period 1729-33, and the weights with the letter K of the year 1729, when Abraham Groenegraft was inspector of weights and measures of the City of Amsterdam.
Secondly, findrnaterial can be classified according to its place within the ship and can provide clues about the area of the ship that is as yet localised. Thirdly, an impression can be obtained about the kind of material and its degree of conservation to be expected in the future. Thus the necessary requirements for conservation can be arranged. It is to be expected that a more intensive excavation may yield an enormous quantity and variety of material, taking into account the environment of soft mud and its protective qualities.
The elevation could be interpreted as the inner side of the ship, that at one side is delimited by the remains of the hull. Theoretically the wreck must then be orientated in line with the row of 'ribs': possibly the big concretion blocks (1) point in this direction, but concrete indications about the structure of the ship are still lacking. Also an orientation is not established because a compass could hardly be read under water and probably shows deviations, due to the high concentration of metals. During this season it did not come to excessive salvage activities. Knowledge of the orientation and structure of the site, which is indispensable for the planning of a purposeful excavation, is still deficient, Likewise failed the necessary technical facilities, particularly a grid-system, to take the matter up in a justifiable way. Such a paling of metal tubes, which divides the site into square sectors, is useful as a co-ordinate scheme of the measuring system, also as a fixed point of orientation, and further offers the divers support when handling the airlift or other heavy aids. During this season soil exploration took place in a small, limited area. Instead of a systematically handled excavation with an accurate registration of position, the salvage took more the shape of a prospection, collecting find materials at random by hand to a small depth. Forced by visibility-conditions the work was mostly done groping along and the position of the objects in relation to each other could not be recorded. To counterbalance this lack of in situ-registration the provenance of the object was established as accurately as possible during the debriefing, on the basis of experiences and observations of the divers. The first finds were collected during the digging to attach the heavy buoy-rope (6/8). Then during the following diving days, all attention was focused on the area around the board with the fixed points, at first mainly in front, later behind, between the row of 'ribs' and the metal rube (I), an area of c. 2 x 2 rn, In spite of the small scale of the excavation, a reasonably large diversity of material and objects was salvaged (see appendix II). A spectacular find-group is a large number of filled wine-bottles, of which the packing crates may still be present in the soft mud. Beside numerous bottle fragments an undamaged, engraved small beaker of white glass has been found. Also coins were brought up in a fair quantity, gold ducats (c. 160) and a varied collection of heavily corroded, South American silver money (c.1100), In a random sequence can be mentioned successively several wooden objects, like a knife handle, a deadeye, musketbutts, buttons, a little box with a sliding-lid and a number of undetermined remains; moreover copper objects, among which compasses, a horn, a sideplate of a musket, tin objects, like a plate with the inscription 1 A 1 1734, forks and a spoon and several kitchen utensils, and also lead fragments, among other things sheeting, a large number of rolls with rope inside and shot of different caliber. Belonging to the category ironware can be considered shot and a fragment of bar shot, a series of weights with lead heads, inscribed with a mark of weight, the coat of arms of Amsterdam and the letter K. Also organic material was salvaged, among which fragments of silk stockings, rope, cardboard, a pineapple and a leaf, while further can be mentioned mother-of-pearl buttons, human ribs, fragments of porcelain, brick, clay-pipes, coal, sealing-wax and slags. Of both bronze cannon the E-cannon, which was laying completely free on the bottom and was no longer in situ, was salvaged (4/9).
The registration procedure of the find material after salvage is split up into two phases: firstly, findlists are being kept in order of salvage, on which a first material determination, quantities and as accurately as possible the provenance is marked, This form of registration took place immediately at the end of the work ori site. Also the progress of the archaeological and conservatory research is daily recorded in a day-report with notes about the course of things on an organisational level, Also the further processing of the finds is indicated on the findlists. After conservation and study of the finds, a registration on object forms will take place, creating means of later functional and material analysis. This research aims at 3 results. Firstly, it was the intention to provide data which will make further identification of the wreck possible. The cannon with the VOC-monogram and the letter E of the Chamber Enkhuizen confirms the speculation that we are dealing with an East Indiarnan, but causes confusion at the same time, because of the obvious provenance from Enkhuizen. A side plate of a musket with the inscription 'Kamer Zeela(nd)' indicates an East India-man from Zeeland, Dating points are provided by the coins, which all belong to the period 1729-33, and the weights with the letter K of the year 1729, when Abraham Groenegraft was inspector of weights and measures of the City of Amsterdam.
Secondly, findrnaterial can be classified according to its place within the ship and can provide clues about the area of the ship that is as yet localised. Thirdly, an impression can be obtained about the kind of material and its degree of conservation to be expected in the future. Thus the necessary requirements for conservation can be arranged. It is to be expected that a more intensive excavation may yield an enormous quantity and variety of material, taking into account the environment of soft mud and its protective qualities.
Recruiting and selecting Dutch amateur divers for the 1983 Campagne 1983
In January 1983 a recruiting campaign was started with the aim to ensure the participation of a sufficient number of Dutch amateur divers on a volunteer basis with the Vliegend Hart project. After an announcement in 'Onderwatersport', the journal of the Dutch underwater sport society, a large number of diving clubs were approached with a letter. In this letter the offer was made to give a lecture on the project. This lecture consisted of:The diving clubs which reacted to the offer were all visited; regretfully there were no reactions from the province of Zeeland. In april 1983 an information desk about the Vliegend Hart project was installed in the diving exhibition `Duiken '83'. Volunteers were accepted under the following conditions:
Volunteers were offered:
In January 1983 a recruiting campaign was started with the aim to ensure the participation of a sufficient number of Dutch amateur divers on a volunteer basis with the Vliegend Hart project. After an announcement in 'Onderwatersport', the journal of the Dutch underwater sport society, a large number of diving clubs were approached with a letter. In this letter the offer was made to give a lecture on the project. This lecture consisted of:The diving clubs which reacted to the offer were all visited; regretfully there were no reactions from the province of Zeeland. In april 1983 an information desk about the Vliegend Hart project was installed in the diving exhibition `Duiken '83'. Volunteers were accepted under the following conditions:
- Extensive diving experience.
- Possession of two star CMAS certificate.
- Experience in the use of underwater tools.
- Reasonable fluency in the English language.
- Interest in history.
- Available for at least one week.
- Readiness to fulfil] other tasks, like conservation and registration work.
Volunteers were offered:
- Free board and accomodation during their stay in Vlissingen.
- Participation in a collective insurance scheme.
- Practical schooling in underwater archaeology,
- Continuous information about the project, both during the stay in Vlissingen and at home.
Introduction Campaign 1983
The campaign of 1983 was in many respects a continuation of the activities set up in the preceding season. On the basis of the data and queries produced in 1982 the framework of research was redefined, initially two main aims were formulated: identifying the shipwreck localised in 1981 and establishing size and nature of the wreck site. On the former questions few doubts existed since 1982: the finds material points to a ship belonging to the Zeeland chamber of the V. 0.C., dating from the thirties of the 18th century: character eristic, s all in perfect harmony with an identification as bet Vliegend Hart. A fully coherent insight however of the situation of the wreck on the bottom of the sea was still lacking.
The emphasis of the archaeological work during the 1983 campaign came to lie on obtaining information about the state of conservation and the position of the ship. In practice this meant a many faceted approach to the problems. First an effort was made to chart all remains of the ship visible on the sea bottom, next a search had to be made for further zones in which sections of the ship might be present. With these data an effort could be made not only to establish the present position of the shipwreck but also the mechanics of the disaster and the process of decay. Exact registration of constructional remains in situ was therefore needed. Systematic collection of finds material could help to make an analysis of distribution and function possible to throw light on the position of the finds in the ship.
In the Wowing paragraphs the proceedings and results will be further elaborated. Contrary to the 1982 season sides can sonar apparatus was available snaking possible the detection of obstacles and landmarks on the bottom, thus providing a basis from which to start visual observation of the wreck area.
Last year's results were heavily influenced by the continuing bad underwater visibility, making a detailed survey and decimation of the wreck area impossible. This year the survey of the wreck area could be based on better visibility and the use of a grid system constructed from welded metal tubing in squares measuring L30 x L30 m, thus providing orientation and added safety to the divers.
The campaign of 1983 was in many respects a continuation of the activities set up in the preceding season. On the basis of the data and queries produced in 1982 the framework of research was redefined, initially two main aims were formulated: identifying the shipwreck localised in 1981 and establishing size and nature of the wreck site. On the former questions few doubts existed since 1982: the finds material points to a ship belonging to the Zeeland chamber of the V. 0.C., dating from the thirties of the 18th century: character eristic, s all in perfect harmony with an identification as bet Vliegend Hart. A fully coherent insight however of the situation of the wreck on the bottom of the sea was still lacking.
The emphasis of the archaeological work during the 1983 campaign came to lie on obtaining information about the state of conservation and the position of the ship. In practice this meant a many faceted approach to the problems. First an effort was made to chart all remains of the ship visible on the sea bottom, next a search had to be made for further zones in which sections of the ship might be present. With these data an effort could be made not only to establish the present position of the shipwreck but also the mechanics of the disaster and the process of decay. Exact registration of constructional remains in situ was therefore needed. Systematic collection of finds material could help to make an analysis of distribution and function possible to throw light on the position of the finds in the ship.
In the Wowing paragraphs the proceedings and results will be further elaborated. Contrary to the 1982 season sides can sonar apparatus was available snaking possible the detection of obstacles and landmarks on the bottom, thus providing a basis from which to start visual observation of the wreck area.
Last year's results were heavily influenced by the continuing bad underwater visibility, making a detailed survey and decimation of the wreck area impossible. This year the survey of the wreck area could be based on better visibility and the use of a grid system constructed from welded metal tubing in squares measuring L30 x L30 m, thus providing orientation and added safety to the divers.
Chronology of events
The 1983 campaign consisted of 11 weeks from May 20 till August 7. Of a total of 76 available days, 42 per cent was lost owing to weather conditions making diving activities impossible (21/5, 24-28/5, 6/6, 11-16/6, 18-19/6, 27/6, 29/6, 3/7, 6/7, 9/7, 12/7, 17-18/7, 20/7, 22-2317, 28/7, 1¬2/8, 4-6/8), 44 days could be effectively used for work on the wreck site (see appendix 3). Compared with workable days in 1982 this is a relatively favourable result.
Like 1982 the 1983 season can be divided in two parts: first a preparatory phase of 22 days (20/5 1/7), then the actual excavation phase of 22 days (2/7 3/8). This chronological division was not caused by the weather but by interventions in the wreck site, causing considerable delay.
The 1983 campaign consisted of 11 weeks from May 20 till August 7. Of a total of 76 available days, 42 per cent was lost owing to weather conditions making diving activities impossible (21/5, 24-28/5, 6/6, 11-16/6, 18-19/6, 27/6, 29/6, 3/7, 6/7, 9/7, 12/7, 17-18/7, 20/7, 22-2317, 28/7, 1¬2/8, 4-6/8), 44 days could be effectively used for work on the wreck site (see appendix 3). Compared with workable days in 1982 this is a relatively favourable result.
Like 1982 the 1983 season can be divided in two parts: first a preparatory phase of 22 days (20/5 1/7), then the actual excavation phase of 22 days (2/7 3/8). This chronological division was not caused by the weather but by interventions in the wreck site, causing considerable delay.
Preparatory phase
The situation and environment of the wreck site are determining factors for the practical execution of a diving operation. Certain preparatory activities developed during last year's campaign have to be repeated, Because there are no fixed markers of the wreck, the whole site has to be localised anew, Certain local circumstances like stream, variable visibility and nets spread at random over the wreck site make pertinent measures necessary to improve safety and efficiency of the work under water. The positioning of the necessary infrastructure goes together with survey of the wreck site, thus providing a basis for planning of operations. In first instance the wreck site was recovered within four days (20/5, 22-23/5, 29/5). After electronic detection and visual reconnaissance, the working area of the previous season was rediscovered (F, fig, 4), The anchor buoy was soon lost (30/5) but resocialisation of the wreck took now Less than one day (31/5). Events in 1982 had shown that the wreck site was crossed by a through route of fishing vessels, this area of the North Sea being fished very intensively_ The decision was made to mark the wreck site very clearly. The D.G.S.M. (directorate general Schelde estuary) kindly helped by placing a metal buoy at the south end of the site the next five days considerable advances were made. A firm anchorage was attached to a concreted iron cannon (c, fig. 4), allowing the divers to approach the wreck site directly. A large quantity of old rope was removed from the site, New swim lines were situated leading to key points, like the vertical cannon. The first two sections of the grid system were fixed (A, B, fig. 4) over the 1982 excavation area, An airlift was installed and its high pressure hose was permanently attached to the anchor line with its coupling at the water surface, allowing quick connection with the compressor on board, no time being lost in this way for the daily preparation of the airlift.
At this stage, with preparations as good as finished and the removal of the top layer of mud just beginning, the anchor buoy disappeared anew, After relocating (7-8/6), considerable damaged was observed on the wreck site, Airlift, grid and swim lines had disappeared, while the aspect of the bottom had changed: formerly visible landmarks and obstacles like ribs, lead ballast blocks, anchorage, airlift tube etc. were now missing(A&B, D, C, I, fig. 4). Sides can sonar survey of the wreck site showed wide circular tracks right through the marked wreck area, evidently caused by heavy fishing nets. It emerged that a 30 cm thick layer of heavy clay bad been deposited over the wreck site (10/6, 17/6), which layer itself was covered with the usual upper layer of soft mud. Together with these ground displacements, large heaps of nets had been uprooted, thus changing the aspect of the bottom. After relocation% the anchorage, the previous arrangements could be reconstructed and the excavation continued (20-24/6, 28/6, 1/7).
To prevent further disturbances and to draw the attention of passing fishermen, a buoy was situated by DGSM at the north of the site (13/6) followed by a marker buoy at the east and west end of the site (28/6), thus marking the wreck area on four sides, Still a further disturbance occurred which threw another layer of clay over the site and caused renewed extensive damage (22/6). The interruption of the work was now of short duration. The anchor buoys were lost two more times, but thanks to the marker buoys relocation of the anchorage took less time (17/6, 1/7). The work could proceed without disturbances after 1/7. The preparatory phase of the season cost 4317 minutes of diving out of a total of 13227 diving minutes for the whole season (33 per cent).
The situation and environment of the wreck site are determining factors for the practical execution of a diving operation. Certain preparatory activities developed during last year's campaign have to be repeated, Because there are no fixed markers of the wreck, the whole site has to be localised anew, Certain local circumstances like stream, variable visibility and nets spread at random over the wreck site make pertinent measures necessary to improve safety and efficiency of the work under water. The positioning of the necessary infrastructure goes together with survey of the wreck site, thus providing a basis for planning of operations. In first instance the wreck site was recovered within four days (20/5, 22-23/5, 29/5). After electronic detection and visual reconnaissance, the working area of the previous season was rediscovered (F, fig, 4), The anchor buoy was soon lost (30/5) but resocialisation of the wreck took now Less than one day (31/5). Events in 1982 had shown that the wreck site was crossed by a through route of fishing vessels, this area of the North Sea being fished very intensively_ The decision was made to mark the wreck site very clearly. The D.G.S.M. (directorate general Schelde estuary) kindly helped by placing a metal buoy at the south end of the site the next five days considerable advances were made. A firm anchorage was attached to a concreted iron cannon (c, fig. 4), allowing the divers to approach the wreck site directly. A large quantity of old rope was removed from the site, New swim lines were situated leading to key points, like the vertical cannon. The first two sections of the grid system were fixed (A, B, fig. 4) over the 1982 excavation area, An airlift was installed and its high pressure hose was permanently attached to the anchor line with its coupling at the water surface, allowing quick connection with the compressor on board, no time being lost in this way for the daily preparation of the airlift.
At this stage, with preparations as good as finished and the removal of the top layer of mud just beginning, the anchor buoy disappeared anew, After relocating (7-8/6), considerable damaged was observed on the wreck site, Airlift, grid and swim lines had disappeared, while the aspect of the bottom had changed: formerly visible landmarks and obstacles like ribs, lead ballast blocks, anchorage, airlift tube etc. were now missing(A&B, D, C, I, fig. 4). Sides can sonar survey of the wreck site showed wide circular tracks right through the marked wreck area, evidently caused by heavy fishing nets. It emerged that a 30 cm thick layer of heavy clay bad been deposited over the wreck site (10/6, 17/6), which layer itself was covered with the usual upper layer of soft mud. Together with these ground displacements, large heaps of nets had been uprooted, thus changing the aspect of the bottom. After relocation% the anchorage, the previous arrangements could be reconstructed and the excavation continued (20-24/6, 28/6, 1/7).
To prevent further disturbances and to draw the attention of passing fishermen, a buoy was situated by DGSM at the north of the site (13/6) followed by a marker buoy at the east and west end of the site (28/6), thus marking the wreck area on four sides, Still a further disturbance occurred which threw another layer of clay over the site and caused renewed extensive damage (22/6). The interruption of the work was now of short duration. The anchor buoys were lost two more times, but thanks to the marker buoys relocation of the anchorage took less time (17/6, 1/7). The work could proceed without disturbances after 1/7. The preparatory phase of the season cost 4317 minutes of diving out of a total of 13227 diving minutes for the whole season (33 per cent).
Fig. 5 Sonar scan of wrecksite
Reasearch phase
Registration and excavation took the remaining 22 workable days. In accordance with the aims formulated for the 1982 campaign six different tasks were carried out: I Survey and charting of the wreck site.
The known extent of the wreck site was subjected to a further inspection. To improve the existing plan, triangulation was carried out using the grid corners as fixed points. In addition to this, reconnaissance of the area was further extended to find more constructional remains and the outer boundaries of the site. This reconnaissance was carried out in semi-circular sweeps, using measuring tape and comp ass.
II Registration of constructional remains on site.
The constructional elements which had been localised during the 1982 season and which were directly accessible were first analysed. With this result it had to be decided where most information for a reconstruction of the ship could be obtained.
Initially the survey remained limited to the 'reconstruction' (A, B, fig, 4), which had been exposed over a length of 5 m. These remains were measured in the horizontal plane, using a base line connected to the grid system. Subsequently the massive wooden 'corner' (E, fig. 4) was measured in detail. This survey was complicated by the differences in ground level and the complex angles between the various structural parts. The measurements were carried out from one fixed point with the aid of measuring tape compass and levelling staff. During this work both large wreck features proved to be connected. Various dispersed large wooden fragments were included in the survey.
Ill Excavation and salvage of artifacts.
The excavation area of the 1982 season. situated next to the rib structure (fig. 4) was the point of departure for further work_ Excavation was carried out from a grid system built of 130 x 130 cm metal squares extending over a zone of 6 x 4 m in westerly direction.
An airlift was used for removal of sand and silt: one of each pair of divers actually operating the airlift while the other assisted by lighting the work area and collecting finds. Each pair worked in one grid square per dive,
The excavation pit was extended to a depth of 1 m. To get at the finds layer, a package of mud, clay, shells and silt had to be removed over a much wider area, particularly around grid 1, between grid 2 and 4, outside grid 6 (A, fig. 4). This package was 3050 cm thick, increasing in westerly direction.
(III) Removal of sand and silt.
The airlift was also used incidentally to lay bare structural remains for further evaluation. These activities took place outside the main excavation and salvage work but also produced finds.
IV Finds registration in the grid,
As an addition to the written registration of finds, the stratigraphy and horizontal distribution of finds within the grid system was recorded, using both graphic and photographic techniques, the last giving no satisfactory results owing to the deterioration of underwater visibility,
V Organisation.
Throughout the 1983 campaign the excavation work was organised by John Rose. Jerzy Gawronski took care of the survey and measuring, while Mark Hollingworth was in charge of grid registration. Within the diving team, a certain amount of specialisation took place. The differences in numbers of personnel available for the various tasks is reflected in the amount of diving minutes spent on these tasks. Tasks 1 and 11 took together about 32 per cent of total diving time of the second period, while task III absorbed all of 77.5 percent (appendix 4).
Registration and excavation took the remaining 22 workable days. In accordance with the aims formulated for the 1982 campaign six different tasks were carried out: I Survey and charting of the wreck site.
The known extent of the wreck site was subjected to a further inspection. To improve the existing plan, triangulation was carried out using the grid corners as fixed points. In addition to this, reconnaissance of the area was further extended to find more constructional remains and the outer boundaries of the site. This reconnaissance was carried out in semi-circular sweeps, using measuring tape and comp ass.
II Registration of constructional remains on site.
The constructional elements which had been localised during the 1982 season and which were directly accessible were first analysed. With this result it had to be decided where most information for a reconstruction of the ship could be obtained.
Initially the survey remained limited to the 'reconstruction' (A, B, fig, 4), which had been exposed over a length of 5 m. These remains were measured in the horizontal plane, using a base line connected to the grid system. Subsequently the massive wooden 'corner' (E, fig. 4) was measured in detail. This survey was complicated by the differences in ground level and the complex angles between the various structural parts. The measurements were carried out from one fixed point with the aid of measuring tape compass and levelling staff. During this work both large wreck features proved to be connected. Various dispersed large wooden fragments were included in the survey.
Ill Excavation and salvage of artifacts.
The excavation area of the 1982 season. situated next to the rib structure (fig. 4) was the point of departure for further work_ Excavation was carried out from a grid system built of 130 x 130 cm metal squares extending over a zone of 6 x 4 m in westerly direction.
An airlift was used for removal of sand and silt: one of each pair of divers actually operating the airlift while the other assisted by lighting the work area and collecting finds. Each pair worked in one grid square per dive,
The excavation pit was extended to a depth of 1 m. To get at the finds layer, a package of mud, clay, shells and silt had to be removed over a much wider area, particularly around grid 1, between grid 2 and 4, outside grid 6 (A, fig. 4). This package was 3050 cm thick, increasing in westerly direction.
(III) Removal of sand and silt.
The airlift was also used incidentally to lay bare structural remains for further evaluation. These activities took place outside the main excavation and salvage work but also produced finds.
IV Finds registration in the grid,
As an addition to the written registration of finds, the stratigraphy and horizontal distribution of finds within the grid system was recorded, using both graphic and photographic techniques, the last giving no satisfactory results owing to the deterioration of underwater visibility,
V Organisation.
Throughout the 1983 campaign the excavation work was organised by John Rose. Jerzy Gawronski took care of the survey and measuring, while Mark Hollingworth was in charge of grid registration. Within the diving team, a certain amount of specialisation took place. The differences in numbers of personnel available for the various tasks is reflected in the amount of diving minutes spent on these tasks. Tasks 1 and 11 took together about 32 per cent of total diving time of the second period, while task III absorbed all of 77.5 percent (appendix 4).
Results
The wreck sites
In the topographical analysis of the wreck site a difference can be distinguished between the remains of the ship on the bottom of the sea and the remains hidden under mud and clay. The visible part of the wreck site seems to consist of a small accumulation of remains oriented along a northwest southeast axis. The north-westerly end of the site is formed by the 'corner' (c, fig, 6), next to which the 4ribconstruct¬ion' is situated (B, fig. 6). Further to the southeast two iron cannon and a bronze one (F, fig. 6) can be found, interspersed with lead blocks and heaps of fishing nets, forming elevations on the bottom. Further reconnaissance over a distance of 17 meters north and northeast of grid 3, in a half circle 10 m north and northeast of the 'corner' and 10 in southwest of the bronze cannon produced no further remains of the ship. Only fishing nets were found 14 m east of grid 3.
Side scan sonar survey of the area shows a similar picture, consisting of five separate elevations along. A NWSE axis, the northwest end shows the most pronounced elevation and seems to coincide with the 'corner', while the third elevation probably is the vertical cannon. Identification of features in the SE part of the sonar scan with known landmarks of the site presents more problems, owing to the angle of reception of the signals, The estimated total length of the wreck features deduced from the sonar scan is 1720 m while the measured distance in the wreck site is 16 possibly the wreck continues in SE direction. The fact that over the past years all attempts at localising the wreck site, either using a grapnel or electronic devices, came out at the same features,
The wreck sites
In the topographical analysis of the wreck site a difference can be distinguished between the remains of the ship on the bottom of the sea and the remains hidden under mud and clay. The visible part of the wreck site seems to consist of a small accumulation of remains oriented along a northwest southeast axis. The north-westerly end of the site is formed by the 'corner' (c, fig, 6), next to which the 4ribconstruct¬ion' is situated (B, fig. 6). Further to the southeast two iron cannon and a bronze one (F, fig. 6) can be found, interspersed with lead blocks and heaps of fishing nets, forming elevations on the bottom. Further reconnaissance over a distance of 17 meters north and northeast of grid 3, in a half circle 10 m north and northeast of the 'corner' and 10 in southwest of the bronze cannon produced no further remains of the ship. Only fishing nets were found 14 m east of grid 3.
Side scan sonar survey of the area shows a similar picture, consisting of five separate elevations along. A NWSE axis, the northwest end shows the most pronounced elevation and seems to coincide with the 'corner', while the third elevation probably is the vertical cannon. Identification of features in the SE part of the sonar scan with known landmarks of the site presents more problems, owing to the angle of reception of the signals, The estimated total length of the wreck features deduced from the sonar scan is 1720 m while the measured distance in the wreck site is 16 possibly the wreck continues in SE direction. The fact that over the past years all attempts at localising the wreck site, either using a grapnel or electronic devices, came out at the same features,
seems to prove that no other major features protrude from the bottom. A separate dot south of the shipwreck axis seems to be the south marker buoy; a spot directly north of the axis has so far not been identified. It remains a question whether the shipwreck extends further than the visible features. Variable degrees of decay and sedimentation are important factors, influencing the fate of a shipwreck in this area. Tidal streams periodically meet the shipwreck axis at right angles, conveying mud to and from the site. The west side of the site shows an abrupt slope beginning at the lead blocks, while the east side has a gentler slope. The west side has a hard, firm soil, while the other side has a soft, muddy structure. This soft muddy soil extends also to the north. The excavation has shown the presence under this sedimentation of a high concentration of material. The heavy beam (1), fig. 6), which points in an easterly direction, forms the northern boundary of this dispersal of material. No excavations have been carried out so far ill westerly direction, therefore no evidence exists for wreck remains in this area. Soundings with a 70 cm long probe showed that obstacles were absent from a few metres off the lead blocks to the west. The remains of the wreck seem to disappear into the soft bottom. Concluding, it may be stated that the wreck site extends from the northern features (C, D, fig. 6) to the south. The traceable remains occupy a zone 17 m possibly 20 meters long. The axis of this zone is oriented NWSE. Within this zone an area can be distinguished, containing large obstacles visible above the bottom on the west side and an area on the east side, containing concentrated material under a package of sedimentation.
Remains of the ship
Already in 1982, finds and observations suggested the presence of at least parts of the stern construction of the ship. New data, produced during the 1983 campaign, confirmed this idea. Before trying to interpret these data a description of the separate phenomena is necessary.
Description
The 4ribconstroction' (B, fig, 6, fig. 7) consists of two elements: a horizontal wooden plank 20 cm thick (b, fig. 7) and c, 10 protruding rectangular beams of various sizes (a, fig. 7). The horizontal plank is more than 40 cm wide and inclines to the NE at an angle of 55 degrees (profile V, fig. 7). The 5 meters of this plank, which have been exposed so far, are oriented from NW to SE. The SE extremity disappears into a mound of nets and mud. The protruding beams are all on the SW side of the plank and incline at the same angle. Beams and planks are made of different kinds of wood. The protruding end grain of the beams is decayed while the parts in the mud are relatively well preserved. The beams seem to taper. The profiles taken (profile I, II, III, IV, fig. 7) show a pronounced widening of the beams in downward direction. There is also an increase in size of the beams from SE (20 cm) to NW (47 cm). The beams are arranged first in two pairs and then in groups of three with intervals of resp. 30, 58 and 25 cm. The impression exists that the angle at which the beams protrude from the bottom, diminishes in NW direction, because with less effort at soil displacement, a larger portion was uncovered there. The group of beams at the NW end has some peculiar features, a deep oblique groove on the side of the plank, probably a remainder of a joint, and a small board with a semi-circular hole over the side of the third beam; directly under the semi-circular hole a semi-circular groove continues through the following beam, becoming a hole in the next beam. Over these three beams a wide board is laid of which only the upper side has been uncovered (d, fig. 7). The long horizontal plank shows a 12 cm wide groove over a length of 150 cm, filled with a lighter kind of wood, possibly this is a joint or a remnant of doubling of the ship's skin.
Even though the SW end of the horizontal plank is severely decayed, an adjoining construction of protruding planks can be observed (b, c, fig. 7) This construction forms an angle of 90 degrees with the planks, this row of planks follows the slope of the elevation with the lead blocks. On the north side of the row of planks the slope does not continue in W direction, creating an abrupt difference in level of about 80 cm (B, fig. 6). This construction shows two more features which are crucial for the interpretation of the structural remains.
First, the row of planks slants slightly inwards (to south), while the eastern part of the row shows a slight rounding at the underside; secondly, on the outside, no wood is visible, but the construction is covered with a smooth layer of a grey substance.
The westerly end of the row is connected with a third major constructional element, a massive piece of wood, 40cm thick, at right angles to the row of planks (A, fig. 8). This part of the shipwreck was called 'the corner' (E, fig.4). The inclined position of the row of planks makes for a slight taper to the top of the massive piece of wood. It protrudes from the bottom at an angle of 55 degrees inclining to the NE. The top of the piece of wood forms the highest point of the elevation with the lead blocks (fig. 6) No traces of a comparable construction have been found on the other side of the massive piece of wood, perhaps owing to the heavy concretion of the site in this area. Remains of copper plating were observed on this part of the ship's construction.
In the excavated area a further number of constructional fragments were observed without any evident connection (D, fig. 6). The heaviest element is a beam north of the grid system, which was measured at grid 3/5 to be 45 cm wide and 16 cm thick. To the west the width diminishes to 35 cm. The wide end of this beam is heavily decayed. Parallel with this heavy beam is a spar, octagonal on one side and round on the other. In grid 4/6 a wide lead pipe was found; one of the ends was torn. The pipe is assembled from two parts, judging from its size this pipe belonged to the construction of the ship.
Already in 1982, finds and observations suggested the presence of at least parts of the stern construction of the ship. New data, produced during the 1983 campaign, confirmed this idea. Before trying to interpret these data a description of the separate phenomena is necessary.
Description
The 4ribconstroction' (B, fig, 6, fig. 7) consists of two elements: a horizontal wooden plank 20 cm thick (b, fig. 7) and c, 10 protruding rectangular beams of various sizes (a, fig. 7). The horizontal plank is more than 40 cm wide and inclines to the NE at an angle of 55 degrees (profile V, fig. 7). The 5 meters of this plank, which have been exposed so far, are oriented from NW to SE. The SE extremity disappears into a mound of nets and mud. The protruding beams are all on the SW side of the plank and incline at the same angle. Beams and planks are made of different kinds of wood. The protruding end grain of the beams is decayed while the parts in the mud are relatively well preserved. The beams seem to taper. The profiles taken (profile I, II, III, IV, fig. 7) show a pronounced widening of the beams in downward direction. There is also an increase in size of the beams from SE (20 cm) to NW (47 cm). The beams are arranged first in two pairs and then in groups of three with intervals of resp. 30, 58 and 25 cm. The impression exists that the angle at which the beams protrude from the bottom, diminishes in NW direction, because with less effort at soil displacement, a larger portion was uncovered there. The group of beams at the NW end has some peculiar features, a deep oblique groove on the side of the plank, probably a remainder of a joint, and a small board with a semi-circular hole over the side of the third beam; directly under the semi-circular hole a semi-circular groove continues through the following beam, becoming a hole in the next beam. Over these three beams a wide board is laid of which only the upper side has been uncovered (d, fig. 7). The long horizontal plank shows a 12 cm wide groove over a length of 150 cm, filled with a lighter kind of wood, possibly this is a joint or a remnant of doubling of the ship's skin.
Even though the SW end of the horizontal plank is severely decayed, an adjoining construction of protruding planks can be observed (b, c, fig. 7) This construction forms an angle of 90 degrees with the planks, this row of planks follows the slope of the elevation with the lead blocks. On the north side of the row of planks the slope does not continue in W direction, creating an abrupt difference in level of about 80 cm (B, fig. 6). This construction shows two more features which are crucial for the interpretation of the structural remains.
First, the row of planks slants slightly inwards (to south), while the eastern part of the row shows a slight rounding at the underside; secondly, on the outside, no wood is visible, but the construction is covered with a smooth layer of a grey substance.
The westerly end of the row is connected with a third major constructional element, a massive piece of wood, 40cm thick, at right angles to the row of planks (A, fig. 8). This part of the shipwreck was called 'the corner' (E, fig.4). The inclined position of the row of planks makes for a slight taper to the top of the massive piece of wood. It protrudes from the bottom at an angle of 55 degrees inclining to the NE. The top of the piece of wood forms the highest point of the elevation with the lead blocks (fig. 6) No traces of a comparable construction have been found on the other side of the massive piece of wood, perhaps owing to the heavy concretion of the site in this area. Remains of copper plating were observed on this part of the ship's construction.
In the excavated area a further number of constructional fragments were observed without any evident connection (D, fig. 6). The heaviest element is a beam north of the grid system, which was measured at grid 3/5 to be 45 cm wide and 16 cm thick. To the west the width diminishes to 35 cm. The wide end of this beam is heavily decayed. Parallel with this heavy beam is a spar, octagonal on one side and round on the other. In grid 4/6 a wide lead pipe was found; one of the ends was torn. The pipe is assembled from two parts, judging from its size this pipe belonged to the construction of the ship.
Interpretation
The structural fragments localised so far can be seen as remains of the stern and hull at the level of the bilge. Many characteristics of the separate fragments tally with this view. The basis for this reconstruction lies in the interpretation of the iribconstruction1 as part of the hull. The horizontal plank is thus seen as a strake, part of the skin of the ship; the protruding beams as ribs. From the open spacing between the rib’s parts are missing. The meaning of the half circular hole through the ribs is unclear.
Dimensions and situation of the horizontal plank point to the ship's skin or to a gunwale with a scarph on the port side of the ship. Be it strake or gunwale, it is clear that we are in the lower part of the hull in the bottom of the hold. The density and heaviness of the ribs point to the specially fortified construction in stern and bow. The angle of the rib’s points to a position in the hull near the stern or bow. This hypothesis is further supported by the row of planks which can only be interpreted as the lower part of the stern. The lower part of the stern, being formed by bended skin planks obliquely in a vertical plane, is in accordance with shipbuilding practice of the first half of the eighteenth century (fig. 9). The smooth surface and grey colour of the planks might be the result of treatment with lead white, a usual practice in the period. The 'corner' at the end of the row of planks can be interpreted as the connection of the stern planking with the stern post, Various arguments for this identification of the structural elements with the lower stern section of the ship can be advanced. The rounding of the row of planks diminishes in the direction of the stern post. The remains of copper plating points to a hull section under the waterline. The dimensions of the row of planks are in accordance with the stern section of an East Indiaman, the stem post widens towards the bottom. Arguments against the identification might be that no traces of rudder pins were found; and the absence of any sign of the starboard side of the ship so far.
The lead blocks which are found in great numbers within the confines of the wooden fragments can be considered as parts of the ship's construction, these lead blocks served as trimming weights for the ship and were fitted under the hold planking to insure proper balance for the ship. They are a permanent feature of the ship and do not belong to the ballast. Their presence here signifies at least that the inner or outer skin of the ship was damaged.
The lead pipe possibly belongs to the water disposal system of the two main pumps of the ship, situated in the stern section.
The structural fragments localised so far can be seen as remains of the stern and hull at the level of the bilge. Many characteristics of the separate fragments tally with this view. The basis for this reconstruction lies in the interpretation of the iribconstruction1 as part of the hull. The horizontal plank is thus seen as a strake, part of the skin of the ship; the protruding beams as ribs. From the open spacing between the rib’s parts are missing. The meaning of the half circular hole through the ribs is unclear.
Dimensions and situation of the horizontal plank point to the ship's skin or to a gunwale with a scarph on the port side of the ship. Be it strake or gunwale, it is clear that we are in the lower part of the hull in the bottom of the hold. The density and heaviness of the ribs point to the specially fortified construction in stern and bow. The angle of the rib’s points to a position in the hull near the stern or bow. This hypothesis is further supported by the row of planks which can only be interpreted as the lower part of the stern. The lower part of the stern, being formed by bended skin planks obliquely in a vertical plane, is in accordance with shipbuilding practice of the first half of the eighteenth century (fig. 9). The smooth surface and grey colour of the planks might be the result of treatment with lead white, a usual practice in the period. The 'corner' at the end of the row of planks can be interpreted as the connection of the stern planking with the stern post, Various arguments for this identification of the structural elements with the lower stern section of the ship can be advanced. The rounding of the row of planks diminishes in the direction of the stern post. The remains of copper plating points to a hull section under the waterline. The dimensions of the row of planks are in accordance with the stern section of an East Indiaman, the stem post widens towards the bottom. Arguments against the identification might be that no traces of rudder pins were found; and the absence of any sign of the starboard side of the ship so far.
The lead blocks which are found in great numbers within the confines of the wooden fragments can be considered as parts of the ship's construction, these lead blocks served as trimming weights for the ship and were fitted under the hold planking to insure proper balance for the ship. They are a permanent feature of the ship and do not belong to the ballast. Their presence here signifies at least that the inner or outer skin of the ship was damaged.
The lead pipe possibly belongs to the water disposal system of the two main pumps of the ship, situated in the stern section.
Finds
A total of 493 finds were registered during the 1983 camp align. Most of these finds carne from the excavation of the grid system. The stratigraphy of the excavated pit is relatively simple. The upper layer is more or less mobile and consists of silt and a layer of clay, deposited during this campaign. Next a layer of soft mud and a layer of shells, at a depth of 30 cm a layer of fine grey clay is found, containing numerous objects. These sediments were formed within the ship after the sinking. Although these sediments, apart from the somewhat disturbed upper layer, show no sign of pollution with sediments of other types, considerable mechanical disturbance has occurred as is witnessed by the presence of chains and cables right through all levels of the excavation: ostensibly remains of fishing tackle caught up by the wreckage. A lot of damage to fragile objects has occurred. In grid I no objects were present, only a deep package of soft very dark mud, a situation which also occurs at the north edge of the wreck site and around the `rib contraction'. The find material is in a relatively good state of conservation. The anaerobic environment that ensued as a result of this type of sedimentation has helped to preserve organic materials like wood, leather and textiles. The soft compact clay has protected fragile objects from mechanical damage and has prevented the spreading of fragments over wide surfaces.
The collection of finds contains, apart from single artifacts and fragments, series of connected objects. Examples of this are bottles of wine, fragments of bottles and packaging material, coins, both Dutch gold ducatoons and South American silver coins, sword blades, muskets and fragments of personal chests. Through the exceptionally favourable circumstances, bulk goods are sometimes found in their packaging. If the packaging has decayed, sometimes the mode of packaging can be deduced, as in the case of the bottles of wine found in orderly rows with fragments of packing cases and in one instance remains of straw, possibly used as packing material between bottles. A package of several hundred sword blades was concreted together, showing the arrangement of the blades in some kind of greasy medium_ Clusters of muskets and clay pipes each showed their own particular order.
The composition of the finds collection will be no further elaborated here. Appendix 5 gives a list of the most significant material. One aspect of prime importance is the historical background of the wreck and the contribution of the find material to a reconstitution of the historical situation, the spatial organisation of an East Indiaman is determined by functions and activities in the ship. The material content of the ship is therefore bound to fixed places. Materials and objects are to a certain extent typical for certain zones in the ship,
Nature and function of the large majority of the finds are characteristic for the stern section. Some of the objects permit a situation on a particular deck level. On the two upper decks of the stern section are situated the captain's cabin and the cabins for officers and the passenger, Mr Jan Douw, appointed to the Council of Justice in Batavia. With these areas of the ship certain pieces of equipment, navigational instruments, exclusive goods and personal items are associated, to this category belong bottles of wine and brandy, case bottles, pewter utensils, porcelain and glass, candlesticks, private weapons, mother of pearl buttons and fine silk textiles. The chests of money transported by the ship were carried in the captain's cabin. Tracing the location in the ship of various finds belonging to the category of armament presents some problems. Hand weapons might be found in the cabins, but also in the constable's room, the ship's arsenal, low in the stern section on the orlop deck. Packaged bulk goods, like sword blades muskets, could be carried bath in the hold as cargo and in the constable's room as ship's stores. The tallystick concreted to one of the money chests can however have no other provenance than the constable's room.
The pulleyblocks, recovered from the wreck, might be part of the ship's rigging or reserve pieces from the ship's stores under the constable's room. Probably from the hold are the lumps of coal which have been found here and there between the 'rib construction'. They are mentioned among the cargo of the ship. Another place of provenance might be the ship's galley, which was situated midships; numerous pieces of slag point to the presence of a fire. A fragment of brick with a piece of slag attached to it might be a fragment of the galley floor, A very conspicuous find is a pewter pan with Chinese and European weights, probably for the tea trade. It might have been situated in one of the cabins as a tool of trade.
A total of 493 finds were registered during the 1983 camp align. Most of these finds carne from the excavation of the grid system. The stratigraphy of the excavated pit is relatively simple. The upper layer is more or less mobile and consists of silt and a layer of clay, deposited during this campaign. Next a layer of soft mud and a layer of shells, at a depth of 30 cm a layer of fine grey clay is found, containing numerous objects. These sediments were formed within the ship after the sinking. Although these sediments, apart from the somewhat disturbed upper layer, show no sign of pollution with sediments of other types, considerable mechanical disturbance has occurred as is witnessed by the presence of chains and cables right through all levels of the excavation: ostensibly remains of fishing tackle caught up by the wreckage. A lot of damage to fragile objects has occurred. In grid I no objects were present, only a deep package of soft very dark mud, a situation which also occurs at the north edge of the wreck site and around the `rib contraction'. The find material is in a relatively good state of conservation. The anaerobic environment that ensued as a result of this type of sedimentation has helped to preserve organic materials like wood, leather and textiles. The soft compact clay has protected fragile objects from mechanical damage and has prevented the spreading of fragments over wide surfaces.
The collection of finds contains, apart from single artifacts and fragments, series of connected objects. Examples of this are bottles of wine, fragments of bottles and packaging material, coins, both Dutch gold ducatoons and South American silver coins, sword blades, muskets and fragments of personal chests. Through the exceptionally favourable circumstances, bulk goods are sometimes found in their packaging. If the packaging has decayed, sometimes the mode of packaging can be deduced, as in the case of the bottles of wine found in orderly rows with fragments of packing cases and in one instance remains of straw, possibly used as packing material between bottles. A package of several hundred sword blades was concreted together, showing the arrangement of the blades in some kind of greasy medium_ Clusters of muskets and clay pipes each showed their own particular order.
The composition of the finds collection will be no further elaborated here. Appendix 5 gives a list of the most significant material. One aspect of prime importance is the historical background of the wreck and the contribution of the find material to a reconstitution of the historical situation, the spatial organisation of an East Indiaman is determined by functions and activities in the ship. The material content of the ship is therefore bound to fixed places. Materials and objects are to a certain extent typical for certain zones in the ship,
Nature and function of the large majority of the finds are characteristic for the stern section. Some of the objects permit a situation on a particular deck level. On the two upper decks of the stern section are situated the captain's cabin and the cabins for officers and the passenger, Mr Jan Douw, appointed to the Council of Justice in Batavia. With these areas of the ship certain pieces of equipment, navigational instruments, exclusive goods and personal items are associated, to this category belong bottles of wine and brandy, case bottles, pewter utensils, porcelain and glass, candlesticks, private weapons, mother of pearl buttons and fine silk textiles. The chests of money transported by the ship were carried in the captain's cabin. Tracing the location in the ship of various finds belonging to the category of armament presents some problems. Hand weapons might be found in the cabins, but also in the constable's room, the ship's arsenal, low in the stern section on the orlop deck. Packaged bulk goods, like sword blades muskets, could be carried bath in the hold as cargo and in the constable's room as ship's stores. The tallystick concreted to one of the money chests can however have no other provenance than the constable's room.
The pulleyblocks, recovered from the wreck, might be part of the ship's rigging or reserve pieces from the ship's stores under the constable's room. Probably from the hold are the lumps of coal which have been found here and there between the 'rib construction'. They are mentioned among the cargo of the ship. Another place of provenance might be the ship's galley, which was situated midships; numerous pieces of slag point to the presence of a fire. A fragment of brick with a piece of slag attached to it might be a fragment of the galley floor, A very conspicuous find is a pewter pan with Chinese and European weights, probably for the tea trade. It might have been situated in one of the cabins as a tool of trade.
and from the preceding paragraphs some conclusions can be drawn about the situation and the dimensions of the wreck, until now only a minor part of the ship has been traced. Much more than the lower port side of the hull was not found. Nat more than 15 m of the wreck was exposed so far, while the wreck site in its totality cannot cover much more than one third of the total ship. The question now remains where the rest of the 42 m long East Indiaman has gone. The bow section might be completely under the mud, a possibility because of the soft underground and the heavy sedimentation. This hypothesis is reinforced by the impression that the structural remains excavated so far seem to dip into the bottom in a south-easterly direction, this impression rests purely on visual observation; possible differences in level have so far not been measured. It is a fact however that the skin planking continues for some distance in the soil. The possibility that the ship broke up when sinking or later cannot be entirety excluded. In that case the bow section might be in a completely different location.
From historical sources we know that the Vliegend Hart went down lying at anchor in a strong north-easterly wind; logically the stern of the ship should then be sought in the east.
Apart from the uncertainty about the integrity of the ship's hull, it now emerges that little of the superstructure of the ship is left. The remaining part of the hull can be situated near the bilge. Next to the considerations of a constructional nature, a further argument can be derived from the black colour of the mud round the presumed stern section. The reason for this might be the presence of vast quantities of gunpowder from the constable's roam.
The severest damage to the ship seems to have occurred on the starboard side. The stern of the ship lies in the bottom, inclined at an angle of 55 degrees to port. Lying in this way the starboard side was most exposed to outside forces. The decaying process of the ship must have proceeded in a conjunction of various factors. The process started with the deterioration of the wooden construction and its metal components. The higher the ship lies above the mud, the stronger the effects of tide and organisms. In the existing bottom structure probably a heavy package of sedimentation was formed against the stern on the port side, giving a certain amount of protection. The excavation has shown that the upper structure of the ship collapsed to the port side, the contents of the upper compartments of the ship were found outside the remains of the ship, spread in easterly direction. A finds distribution chart of this material is at present not available, so spatial associations between objects are as yet not possible. in the same way the presence of the blocks of lead can be explained. They are the remains of the port hull construction which also collapsed. The port bilge area probably remained undamaged and should still be found when the excavation proceeds to a lower level. Exploratory trenches over the total width of the wreck site have not been dug yet, owing to lack of time and the problem of removal of the large number of lead blocks.
The presence of heavy ancient and modern nets, intertwined with the lead blocks and spread over the remains of the stern into the bottom, points to the fact that other than natural factors have influenced the decay of the wreck. No doubt the activity of fishermen has been and is an important factor, Power of fishing vessels has tremendously increased in the last 20 years. It is easy to imagine what 900 horsepower will do to an ancient wooden shipwreck. The extreme damage to the most exposed parts of the wreckage might have its explanation here. The observed damage has put an end to the hope of finding a well-preserved wooden ship construction. Historical sources mention that the ship sank in an upright position and that even a year later portions of the masts were still visible at the surface. That the hull was still intact at that time emerges from contemporary surveys and from the fact that salvage attempts had to be stopped because of the inaccessibility of the still intact hull. This information shows how important the influence of outside mechanical forces must have been in the decaying process. The state of conservation of the salvaged artifacts however is much better than usual, owing largely to the environment of soft mud. Notwithstanding the progressive pollution of the Scheldt estuary and the connected chemical reactions and transformations of the find material this wreck site offers favourable perspectives for the salvage of a unique find complex.
From historical sources we know that the Vliegend Hart went down lying at anchor in a strong north-easterly wind; logically the stern of the ship should then be sought in the east.
Apart from the uncertainty about the integrity of the ship's hull, it now emerges that little of the superstructure of the ship is left. The remaining part of the hull can be situated near the bilge. Next to the considerations of a constructional nature, a further argument can be derived from the black colour of the mud round the presumed stern section. The reason for this might be the presence of vast quantities of gunpowder from the constable's roam.
The severest damage to the ship seems to have occurred on the starboard side. The stern of the ship lies in the bottom, inclined at an angle of 55 degrees to port. Lying in this way the starboard side was most exposed to outside forces. The decaying process of the ship must have proceeded in a conjunction of various factors. The process started with the deterioration of the wooden construction and its metal components. The higher the ship lies above the mud, the stronger the effects of tide and organisms. In the existing bottom structure probably a heavy package of sedimentation was formed against the stern on the port side, giving a certain amount of protection. The excavation has shown that the upper structure of the ship collapsed to the port side, the contents of the upper compartments of the ship were found outside the remains of the ship, spread in easterly direction. A finds distribution chart of this material is at present not available, so spatial associations between objects are as yet not possible. in the same way the presence of the blocks of lead can be explained. They are the remains of the port hull construction which also collapsed. The port bilge area probably remained undamaged and should still be found when the excavation proceeds to a lower level. Exploratory trenches over the total width of the wreck site have not been dug yet, owing to lack of time and the problem of removal of the large number of lead blocks.
The presence of heavy ancient and modern nets, intertwined with the lead blocks and spread over the remains of the stern into the bottom, points to the fact that other than natural factors have influenced the decay of the wreck. No doubt the activity of fishermen has been and is an important factor, Power of fishing vessels has tremendously increased in the last 20 years. It is easy to imagine what 900 horsepower will do to an ancient wooden shipwreck. The extreme damage to the most exposed parts of the wreckage might have its explanation here. The observed damage has put an end to the hope of finding a well-preserved wooden ship construction. Historical sources mention that the ship sank in an upright position and that even a year later portions of the masts were still visible at the surface. That the hull was still intact at that time emerges from contemporary surveys and from the fact that salvage attempts had to be stopped because of the inaccessibility of the still intact hull. This information shows how important the influence of outside mechanical forces must have been in the decaying process. The state of conservation of the salvaged artifacts however is much better than usual, owing largely to the environment of soft mud. Notwithstanding the progressive pollution of the Scheldt estuary and the connected chemical reactions and transformations of the find material this wreck site offers favourable perspectives for the salvage of a unique find complex.
Conservation
In underwater archaeological excavations, like in the VliegendHart project, the most varying objects and materials are produced, which have in this case rested for over 250 years at a depth of 20 m under a pressure of 3 bar in a progressively aggressive environment. Such material has been exposed to salt water, attacked by large and small organisms, mechanical damage of various kinds and an untraceable series of chemical processes.
To ensure the continued existence of such material, general and specific measures are called for. The general measures, developed already during the 1983 campaign, were further refined into standard procedures. For example, glass, wood and ceramic materials were washed in a cascade system of baths, whereby the objects moved in a few weeks from a salt to a sweet water environment. Objects made from pewter, lead, copper and brass were subjected to electrolytical treatment during several days. Afterwards they were washed and dried and given a coating of beeswax, sometimes mixed with corrosion inhibitors.
The generally heavily corroded objects made from cast or wrought iron were washed in a series of alkaline baths at a temperature of 60 degrees C. Afterwards they were washed in distilled water at the same temperature and then dried and impregnated with linseed oil. The large quantities of silver coins, all of them severely corroded, were packed, concretion and all, in aluminium foil and then immersed in an alkaline solution. In most cases this treatment was repeated several times. The consolidated coins were, after prolonged washing in distilled water, dried and covered with a thin layer of beeswax.
Apart from the described standard conservation procedures, more specific treatment was applied in special cases, like freeze drying of fragile wooden objects, impregnation with resins of objects in mother of pearl and wood, special washing treatments for textiles etc.
With the help of AKZO Chemie, the Province of Zeeland and Messrs. Stegink, Flushing, it was possible to install an improvised but efficient conservation laboratory.
In underwater archaeological excavations, like in the VliegendHart project, the most varying objects and materials are produced, which have in this case rested for over 250 years at a depth of 20 m under a pressure of 3 bar in a progressively aggressive environment. Such material has been exposed to salt water, attacked by large and small organisms, mechanical damage of various kinds and an untraceable series of chemical processes.
To ensure the continued existence of such material, general and specific measures are called for. The general measures, developed already during the 1983 campaign, were further refined into standard procedures. For example, glass, wood and ceramic materials were washed in a cascade system of baths, whereby the objects moved in a few weeks from a salt to a sweet water environment. Objects made from pewter, lead, copper and brass were subjected to electrolytical treatment during several days. Afterwards they were washed and dried and given a coating of beeswax, sometimes mixed with corrosion inhibitors.
The generally heavily corroded objects made from cast or wrought iron were washed in a series of alkaline baths at a temperature of 60 degrees C. Afterwards they were washed in distilled water at the same temperature and then dried and impregnated with linseed oil. The large quantities of silver coins, all of them severely corroded, were packed, concretion and all, in aluminium foil and then immersed in an alkaline solution. In most cases this treatment was repeated several times. The consolidated coins were, after prolonged washing in distilled water, dried and covered with a thin layer of beeswax.
Apart from the described standard conservation procedures, more specific treatment was applied in special cases, like freeze drying of fragile wooden objects, impregnation with resins of objects in mother of pearl and wood, special washing treatments for textiles etc.
With the help of AKZO Chemie, the Province of Zeeland and Messrs. Stegink, Flushing, it was possible to install an improvised but efficient conservation laboratory.
Evaluation
During the 1982 and 1983 campaigns external and internal factors influenced the proceedings. In 1983 weather and underwater visibility were much better than in the preceding season. It proved not always possible to profit from these favourable circumstances. The most important disturbing factor consisted of interventions on the wreck site by third parties. Especially interference in the wreck site by fishermen caused repeated interruptions of the work. In stark contrast with suggestions in the press about effective countermeasures by police and navy, no real protection against outside interference in the wreck site proved possible.
A second factor which influenced operations was of an internal nature. During the 1983 campaign the gathering and processing of information proved to be highly dependent on the composition of the team and the available administrative capacity. A discrepancy existed between on one side the registration of the remains of the ship and site survey, and on the other side excavation, registering and collecting of artifacts, though both groups of activities should have had an equally important position in the project. In the opinion of the authors of this report, the first group of activities had too subordinated a position.
Another external influence was exerted on the project by publicity_ Internal information functioned satisfactory. Participants in the project received at all times sufficient information. Communal accommodation made a continuing discussion possible, thus contributing to a fruitful exchange of thought and opinion. The information directed at the media was less successful, as became evident particularly after the spectacular discovery of a VOC money chest in August. The diverging views of English and Dutch participants on the project were enlarged and reflected in the media causing confusion both inside and outside the project.
The tangible results of the project so far can be summarised under the following points,
During the 1982 and 1983 campaigns external and internal factors influenced the proceedings. In 1983 weather and underwater visibility were much better than in the preceding season. It proved not always possible to profit from these favourable circumstances. The most important disturbing factor consisted of interventions on the wreck site by third parties. Especially interference in the wreck site by fishermen caused repeated interruptions of the work. In stark contrast with suggestions in the press about effective countermeasures by police and navy, no real protection against outside interference in the wreck site proved possible.
A second factor which influenced operations was of an internal nature. During the 1983 campaign the gathering and processing of information proved to be highly dependent on the composition of the team and the available administrative capacity. A discrepancy existed between on one side the registration of the remains of the ship and site survey, and on the other side excavation, registering and collecting of artifacts, though both groups of activities should have had an equally important position in the project. In the opinion of the authors of this report, the first group of activities had too subordinated a position.
Another external influence was exerted on the project by publicity_ Internal information functioned satisfactory. Participants in the project received at all times sufficient information. Communal accommodation made a continuing discussion possible, thus contributing to a fruitful exchange of thought and opinion. The information directed at the media was less successful, as became evident particularly after the spectacular discovery of a VOC money chest in August. The diverging views of English and Dutch participants on the project were enlarged and reflected in the media causing confusion both inside and outside the project.
The tangible results of the project so far can be summarised under the following points,
- During the 1983 campaign a picture emerged of the wreck site, only part of the ship is visible, many questions about the situation of the remainder of the wreck remain,
- The numerous finds produced by the excavation have provided information which can be used for reconstructions of the ship as a constructive and functional unit. Many objects throw light upon social, economic and technical connections. Particularly interesting are complexes and coherent groups of finds, like the money chest, Eurasian weights, packed sabre blades, personal possessions and textiles.
- Procedures for registration and conservation were further refined and given more general applicability.
- Research of a material complex like a sunken East Indiaman takes a special place within the archaeological discipline, because of its specific historical archaeological problems. Such theoretical principles could be tested in practice in the context of a large-scale project.
- C. 40 Dutch volunteers were able to build up a varied experience which will remain useful for future projects.